In the frozen reaches of Greenland, a humble dog sits beneath a sky smeared with pale sun. Its breath makes tiny clouds in the cold air. Its paws, broad and calloused, press into the snow. This is the Qimmeq (or Greenland Dog), a special canine bred not for companionship or dog shows but for endurance in some of the world’s most unforgiving environments. It’s a dog meant for hauling sleds across drifting ice, for sniffing out seals beneath the frost, for surviving where few others can.

It is, quite possibly, the oldest dog breed on Earth. Its genetic history stretches back nearly 10,000 years to Siberia. And for a thousand years, it has run alongside Inuit hunters, not behind them.

A new study in Science uses ancient and modern DNA to tell the Qimmeq’s story. It’s a story not just about dogs, but also about people, migration, and resilience. It’s a story written in bone fragments and cheek swabs, stretching from Siberia’s ancient tundra to the coastal settlements of modern Greenland.

A Thousand-Year Bond

Researchers analyzed the DNA of 92 Greenland sled dogs, both living and long deceased. Considering the age of the breed, the results turned out to be a veritable genetic time capsule.

“The Greenland sled dog is not only the oldest known sled dog breed,” says lead author Tatiana Feuerborn, a paleogeneticist at the U.S. National Institutes of Health, “but it may well be the oldest dog breed altogether.”

The research team gathered samples from archaeological sites, traditional clothing made of dog fur, and even modern mushers’ kennels. They then compared the Qimmeq’s genetic material with over 1,900 published dog genomes. Their findings show the Qimmeq has retained much of its original genetic identity for nearly a millennium.

Most dogs, including modern sled breeds like Alaskan huskies, have mingled genetically with other breeds. The Qimmeq, however, stands apart as genetically distinct.

“They’re a working dog that has been performing the same task with the same people for 1,000 years or more,” says Feuerborn. “That’s what sets them apart.”

Tracing Migration Through Canine DNA

But the study is as much about dogs as it is about humans. Because the Qimmeq traveled with Inuit migrants across the Arctic, its genes mirror that movement.

By mapping the genetic similarity between Greenlandic dogs and ancient dogs from Alaska and Siberia, the researchers concluded that the Inuit likely arrived in Greenland earlier than previously believed, perhaps as much as 200 years earlier.

“This is some of the first quantifiable evidence that really lends credence to it,” Feuerborn explains.

Their findings support a theory that the Inuit swept across the North American Arctic in a rapid migration from Siberia, crossing into Alaska, moving through Canada, and finally reaching Greenland between 800 and 1,200 years ago. That migration, it turns out, may have happened before the arrival of Norse settlers.

The dogs’ genomes also helped illuminate internal patterns of Inuit settlement within Greenland itself. Four major genetic clusters in Qimmeq populations — north, west, east, and northeast — match the distribution of Indigenous Greenlandic communities.

Remarkably, the northeastern dog DNA provides evidence of a human community that has otherwise faded from historical record. Few archaeological remnants remain of these people, but the Qimmeq DNA remembers them.

Genetics of Survival

Dog genomes captured historical events, like documented famines and outbreaks of distemper and rabies. During these crises, the population shrank and inbreeding rose. Yet the dogs endured. Even today, despite sharp declines in their numbers, Feuerborn says they’re genetically robust.

“They’re actually really healthy dogs,” she notes, although their population has been plummeting from around 25,000 in 2002 to just 13,000 by 2020.

This collapse has many causes: melting ice, shorter winters, shrinking hunting grounds, and the arrival of snowmobiles. Once vital, sled dogs are now being replaced by machines so there is much less demand to breed them.

But snowmobiles, as Feuerborn notes, “can’t smell seals or polar bears. They’re not quiet. They can’t think for themselves. And they break down.” Sled dogs, by contrast, are built for Arctic survival. They’re perfectly adapted to eat meat and blubber, to endure extreme cold, and to run long distances.

Not Even Wolves or Europe Phased the Qimmeq

Feuerborn and her colleagues also explored a common belief among Greenlanders: that Qimmit were sometimes crossbred with wolves to improve their stamina. Yet their data disagrees.

“We were shocked,” Feuerborn says. The dogs showed no stronger genetic links to wolves than other Arctic breeds. It’s possible that wolf-dog hybrids simply didn’t pass on their genes. If they couldn’t perform the demanding tasks expected of sled dogs, they were weeded out.

Likewise, the Qimmeq resisted European influence. Despite centuries of contact, including Danish-Norwegian colonization in the 18th century, there is almost no European ancestry in their genes.

This level of genetic isolation is rare is our increasingly connected world, and it makes the Qimmeq even more valuable, scientifically and culturally.

“These insights into the Qimmit provide a baseline for levels of inbreeding and introgression that can serve as a foundation for informed management aimed at the preservation of these remarkable dogs,” the researchers wrote.

The study’s biggest takeaway is how tightly interwoven the lives of humans and dogs have been. “Dogs have been so intrinsically tied to human history as the first domesticated animal,” Feuerborn says. “They have been at the formation of every human society.”

In Greenland, that partnership never ended and, in some places, still looks the same as it did thousands of years ago.

But its future is uncertain. As climate change reshapes the Arctic, and as snowmobiles take over the job Qimmeq once did, their numbers dwindle.